A phenomenological approach to Alzheimer’s disease.
Questions about Being, Existence, Selfhood are inherent in the human being. Already from the moment of his birth, man expresses his anxiety about the above questions with his intense crying. Questions about Being are expressed anxiously within the world, which is traversed by relentless time. Measurable intracosmic time expresses the finiteness of the individual.
The universal Being is incorporated within the world, where man extends as a embodiment self of Myself of Yourself, of Himself, of Ourselves.. and at the same time acquires temporality. The universal Being is personified, it becomes I am now, I was in the past, I will be in the future. After all, time, as Merleau Ponty emphasized, “is expressed as a push towards a future”, the passage “from a present to a present”, within which the self-determination of human existence unfolds. [1]
Human existence as such is the form of Being and time, since it forms with its physical fact everywhere and everythinginto Here and Now. Space and time are constantly and infinitely increasing. The universal matter and energy express the modalities of spatiotemporal eternity, but the matter and energy of the human body give the meaning of the end to this vast spatiotemporal matter and energy.
The dual meaning of the Aristotelian concept of the end, which man gives to the hylomorphic dimension of space-time, expresses the end as a limit, but also as a goal. The random event of the advent of man acquires a purpose, the purpose of his existence. Man, through actions, habits, but also the constant struggle, seeks to solve the riddle of Being and Existence, verifying Carl Jung’s point of view, according to which man is not just what happened to him, but is what the he chooses to become.[2]
Human existence throughout its life seeks answers about the creation of the world, and of course its own spatio-temporal position within it. The complexity of the spatio-temporal becoming unfolds simultaneously with the fact of the human body, since the human being himself through the physical genders, modalities, but also deviations shapes the intracosmic becoming. The more the human existence extends as a comprehensive and temporal totality shaping the inner cosmic matter and energy, the more intensifies the insatiable thirst of the human gaze to search and imagine. [3]
How many times has anyone wondered if the inner cosmic becoming within which it extends is a reality… Is it, after all, the external reality the result of the personalization of external stimuli by the human brain, or is it an objective reality? What if everything we live is just a matrix? Perhaps Shakespeare was right when, through Ophelia’s words, he expressed man’s existential anguish, saying: “We know what we are , but know not what may be”. [4]
There are not a few times when man, looking for answers to these questions, tries to distance himself from his existence, wondering if he is really who he is, as well as why it should be him and not someone else.. Especially in childhood, the child has a need to face himself in order to rule out that this “other” is not some stranger, but himself.
Man seeks the confirmation of selfhood, of his Being, for this reason he distances himself from his Being, in order to ascertain whether it really exists, seeking, in this way, to approach Being through non-Being. This event brings back to the forefront of philosophical thought the Heraclitian dialectical relationship of being / non-being, at the moment when man searches for his dual – potential self. [5]
What happens, however, when these existential questions are not simply questions of searching for Being, but of forgetting Being? What happens when the human being begins to perceive himself as a non-being, unable to recognize his existence?
When the person lives a matrix within which he observes himself, without being able to recognize him..?
“Who am I?”, “Where am I?” “Who are you?”, these questions plague – ontologically and functionally – a person who is faced with Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s, another pandemic of our time, is the disease that affects a large percentage of the population worldwide. It occurs in people over 65, but also in young people.
Although scientists are still investigating the causes of Alzheimer’s disease, they have identified as one of the main causes the accumulation of two proteins[6], Αmyloid beta and Tau protein[7]. Of course, other factors such as age, heredity, stress, diseases related to cardiovascular problems and dysregulation of diabetes mellitus. The development and progression of Alzheimer’s disease are also accelerated by the complex modern bio-rhythms. In fact, research has shown that air pollution favors the appearance of the disease, especially in people living in large cities, where industrial over-activity has a catalytic effect on the environment and atmosphere.[8] This fact demonstrates the inseparable connection of the existential characteristic with the natural hic et nunc, its evolutionary course, but also its deviations.
It is the disease that isolates human physicality from itself, as it is responsible for its desynchronization both from the external flow of time and from subjective temporality. Of the 55,000,000 people living with dementia worldwide, approximately 60-70% have Alzheimer’s disease. Of the 55,000,000, 33 to 38.5 million people with Alzheimer’s disease developed memory loss before the age of 65, at a rate of 10%. Research published on the Harvard Medical School blog cites results of a recent study in the Netherlands, according to which dementia in young people (55%) was due to Alzheimer’s disease.[9]
Of course, there are differences in the onset of the disease over the age of 65 from early-onset disease. People over 65 with typical late onset have memory changes due to the disease, plus changes due to aging. In the late form of the disease the parts of the brain most affected are the frontal lobes which are responsible for working memory as well as many cognitive functions. While young people suffering from the disease are affected in terms of their episodic memory, with the consequence that the imagination is unable to produce new images and the person is unable to remember recent events.[10] Furthermore, research has shown that Alzheimer’s disease that affects people of young ages is linked to depression and anxiety that are prevalent in the modern complex reality of unpredictability and risk-taking.
Alzheimer’s disease bisects the duality of body-subjectivity, gradually making it difficult to inscribe experiences and experiences. Alzheimer’s brings about the degeneration of neural networks and data,[11] consequently altering the experienced images within the hic et nunc, and rather the image of the individual of each existence. Alzheimer’s disease is often accompanied by manifestations of melancholia or intense phenomena that indicate depression. The individual is desynchronized by the biorhythms of his corporality, which is obscured as a whole.
Human existence, as it reveals the modalities of Dasein, (Heidegger) as an embodied subject, experiences spatio-temporal atmospheres, emotions and moods within the world.[12] In the case of a person who is faced with Alzheimer’s disease, temporal and temporal moods are not experienced in the same way, since the corporal resonance[13] of human existence is trapped, as the subject is isolated and the individual is an inaccessible space.
Alzheimer’s disease dislodges the individual from his place within the multiplicity. The individual is displaced from his certain intracosmic position and trapped in a “somewhere” of abstract presence.[14] Da-Sein waits, his place taken by Wo-Sein, as the amnesiac wonders anxiously “Who is he” and “Where is he?”
Existential Being as Da-Sein is not contingently located within the world. The intracosmic tension between beings determines the spatiality of Da-Sein, which, according to Heidegger, is characterized by re-moval (in the sense of the annihilation of distances) and orientation [Ent-fernung und Ausrichtung ].[15] But Alzheimer’s disease, with whatever aberrations it brings, expresses itself as an alteration of Dasein, eroding the familiarity, closeness and domestication between the beings that meet within the world.
Dementia, as a consequence of the disease, which constitutes the main cause of the loss of consciousness, annihilates the intercosmic closeness of the patient, disorients him, enlarging the distances between the sufferer and beings, with the consequence that the individual feels the fall (Geworfenheit)[16] (throwness) within the Being, as a crash on the Being. Alzheimer’s is the absolute obscuration of existence, because it closes the intercosmic opening of being by contradicting its encounter with spatiality.[17]
Dasein in terms of its spatiality is initially there and based on this there it returns to the here of its selfhood, as it discovers and reveals its relationships with the rest of the worldly beings.[18] However, when the person experiences the effects of Alzheimer’s disease, he enters a utopia, within which place is eliminated, where Here and There mutate into nowhere and then the sufferer, like another Cyclops Polyphemus, responds as “NOBODY” . Research, in fact, has shown that memories are not only degraded, because of the disease, but probably will never be able to be recovered.[19]
The person with Alzheimer’s experiences the terrifying uncertainty of his very existence while desperately searching for his ontological identity. The individual’s Ego is transformed into an unknown stranger incarnated in an open body, disoriented in space and time. The bodily self-perception that develops within spatiotemporal becoming is affected.
The four seasons no longer have a form, the hours do not cross the days, since the coherent identity of essence – existence has been broken. Space and time are transformed into an amorphous and abstract mass, due to the fact that the person suffering from Alzheimer’s disease does not assimilate his Being either spatially or temporally. The individuality of the sufferer turns into physical physicality, while Being is no longer appropriated by man as Dasein, but is presented as wo-Sein, at the moment when the individual does not recognize his selfhood.
The Being of the person who experiences the degenerative Alzheimer’s disease is affected in all its aspects. The deviations of Being take terrifying forms eroding Being, because in an advanced stage of the disease man is unable to recognize himself. The person is unable to extend his Being,[Sein] and at the same time his Being -with [Mitsein], since, due to dementia, he is unable to recognize and remember others. Furthermore, the Presence of the individual in relation to the present-at-hand (zuhanden) worldly beings is diverted, since the patient, from a point on, is not able to take care of himself by making use of the objects of everyday life.
Alzheimer’s fundamentally alters brain cells, affecting the self-determination and self-awareness of human existence. For this reason, it is important to study the disease in the light of neuro-phenomenology[20] and to place physicality as an intersubjective extent of perception at the center of scientific and philosophical attention.
The living body extends in so far as it is aware of its movement and position within perceptual spatio-temporality.[21]The lived body is a body-shape, which, as Merleau Ponty pointed out, cannot be understood without a horizon. In the case of the patient with dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease, the body does not perceive the horizon of its shape, as its position in space is no longer determined by “Here”, but by the agonizing question “Where?”.
Merleau Ponty[22] in “Phenomenology of Perception” emphasizes that the person, whether he is standing, or in any other position, or in motion, knows exactly where his limbs are, as well as other parts of his body. The patient who is faced with Alzheimer’s disease, gradually finds it difficult to perceive the presence of the parts of his body, since he does not feel the feeling of inhabitation that connects him to his body.
Propriomotion turns into chaotic, experientially undefined movement, since the patient’s motor perception is affected, with the consequence that the relationship between movement and experience[23] is de-dialecticized[24]. The subject, especially in an advanced stage of dementia, is unable to experience his sensorimotor integration, observing the movements of his body, not as his own movements of his own body, but as automatic movements of an alien kӧrper.
The movements of the intracosmic openness of the existential body of a person afflicted by the disease, manifest as movements of immobility of disorientation of a corporeality, which, while, is felt as a physical presence, but is expressed as an experiential absence.
The self-motion of the body unfolds as a fusion of physical-experiential presence of human corporality. The proprioception concerns, of course, the body parts, but not only the bodily parts, but also the visual proprioception. As Merleau Ponty put it directly in the Phenomenology of Perception: ” For me my destiny is being established in my life […] fastened down in this transcendental field opened, that I was born as vision and knowledge, that I was cast in the world”. [25]
Vision manifests itself as entelechy of the eye (Aristotle) which beholds external sensibility, but sight is synonymous with knowledge, self-knowledge and self-consciousness. Man, already from childhood, eagerly seeks the image of himself, in order to confirm the identity of his corporality.
The child needs to face himself in order to rule out that this “other” is not a stranger, but himself. The mirror plays a decisive role in the child’s own visual conception of the self. The mirror contributes, during childhood, to the perception of the image of the child’s own body by the child himself. In the mirror the child perceives his familiar space, his objects, but also his object par excellence, his mother, who has him in her arms in front of the mirror.
The embodiment Ego of the child is formed through identification with its counterpart, as the other human body that is in the mirror is a peculiar reflection and not a peculiar body. In this way, the child identifies with himself as an object through the mirror, perceiving that this is his body.
The person perceives, above all, his own image, the image of his own body, which at the moment he experiences it as leib, he perceives it visually as kӧrper. The subject identifies with itself, which it perceives as an object, seeing it as another. Consequently, his living body – reflected in the mirror – is governed by the ambivalence of Ego/Non-Ego. The primary identification and formation of the Ego is due to this fact, i.e. that this other of the other through the mirror guarantees that the first is himself.
Maurice Merleau Ponty, during his teaching at the Sorbonne, emphasized the importance of contemplating the body image from the child himself, delving, in fact, into the concept of childhood narcissism, as developed by Lacan.[26] The child experiences the contrast between the vision of his body, as visually perceived by others, and the image that the child himself has of it, realizing in this way the duality of the proper body, as an object and as an identity.
However, in the case of a patient with advanced dementia, this duality of the idiosoma (Ponty) is bisected. The existence itself and its reflection as self are two strangers. The self through the mirror is presented as another, since the patient cannot recognize the form and shape of his body, because possibly the memory has remained in the form of the body as it was decades ago. [27]
The living gazing body is expressed as passive leib, since the coherence of idiosyncratic gaze – bodily shape has been lost. Corporal matter and corporeal form have been dichotomized, as the subject not only does not recognize the form of his reflection, but considers it to be someone else. That is why cases of patients who resent the presence of mirrors have often been reported, since they believe that there is a stranger in the house who is watching them, or even worse, who wants to harm them.
His present self in the mirror becomes a stranger or, even worse, an adversary. This, many times, happens because the patient does not assimilate his present physical identity. The gradual fading and eventual loss of short-term memory results in desynchronization of gaze and physical form. The gaze does not appropriate the experiential present form of the eigenbody, because due to the loss of memory the visual effects of the vector towards the shape of its corporeality have been forgotten. The gaze confronts an alien face, the idea of the image of the proper body is inconsistent with the body as a fact.
The absurdity of human existence, which has been brought into focus by important philosophers and thinkers such as Camus, takes on unpredictable forms in the condition of Alzheimer’s disease. Camus in his work “The Myth of Sisyphus“[28] delves into the absurdity of human existence, emphasizing the carnal rebellion, which despite its contingency, manifests itself through the competitive search for Tomorrow.
In the case of the person with dementia, the carnal rebellion is not experienced by the person himself. However, because the vital impulse, cohering with conscious and unconscious memories, but at the same time transcending them, manifests itself in an unpredictable way: the carnal rebellion of the person with dementia manifests itself not through the search for Tomorrow, but through the search for an indefinite Yesterday.
The carnal rebellion of the Alzheimer’s man is expressed not as a reverberation of human existence, but as a silence of oblivion, as the amnesiac isolates himself in a body, which is materially present but experientially absent. The flesh, now, has turned into a passive body (passive Leib), which while affirming human existence, at the same time the existence experiences the absolute uncertainty of oblivion.
Forgetting is a consequence of the obscuration of the historical a priori memory within which human existence radiates. The transcendental movement of the Being of a dementia patient does not synchronize with the spatiotemporality of his Being, nor with the Being of multiplicity.[29] The patient is unable to remember faces and events, even the faces of his family. Dementia is expressed as repetitiveness of forgetfulness and uncertainty. The daily life of the individual evolves in the midst of repeated anguished questions: “Who am I?” , “Who are you?” “Where am I?”.
The repeatability of time seems eternal and inaccessible. The patient’s relationship with experiential memory could be paralleled with Sisyphus’ relationship with the rock, as described in Camus’s work, but also in Richard Taylor’s work on the meaning of life.[30] Sisyphus was forced to repeat the following eternal ordeal: shouldering a rock to the top of a mountain, then the rock would fall and Sisyphus had to repeat the same process again and again, a process without an end or a beginning. This is exactly the ordeal that a person suffering from dementia goes through. Memory is an immovable rock, which, even if it reaches the top, falls back to where it started.
Dementia is a painful condition, both for the sufferer himself, and for his relatives, especially the caregivers. Caregivers realize every day the disappearance of the patient’s physical proprioceptiveness and the absence of the sense of bodily belonging. Familiars see the same person, the same person, who, however, does not meet them either visually or experientially. Relatives are often confronted with the patient’s absent presence. Sometimes, in fact, they need to put themselves in the patient’s place, ask, and even give answers themselves, as they empathize with the patient’s inability to become familiar with his Being.
Alzheimer’s disease brings to the surface concerns and questions about the individual’s consciousness, the unconscious and the term “person“. Lost memories and thoughts that have been forgotten intensified the concerns regarding the relationship between conscious and unconscious, a fact that Freud expressed through his question: “Where does a thought go when it is forgotten?”[31] implying the spacetime of the unconscious.
There are not a few cases of patients with dementia who, while they have lost the memory of the recent event, unsuspectingly retrieve images from the distant past. These memories, however, do not appear as sculpted experiential images, but as confused, raw images that manifest in the physicality in the form of aphasic seizures, aggressive behavior, obsessions, delusional seizures, or even through carnal expressions suggestive of post-traumatic stress disorder.[32]
Time and Being are inscribed in the human individual in the form of events that multiply and dizzyingly succeed one another. Some events, in fact, are either intense, or even traumatic, with the consequence of coming back at an unsuspected time, even when the person is in a state of dementia. These memories often come to the surface through obscured images, which sometimes bring the corresponding symptoms to the body. “It is only up to the head to think, but the whole body has memory“, as the French opinion writer Joseph Joubert said. [33]
Man throughout his life is his body[34], as all experiences and experiences are inscribed in corporality. These experiences and experiences, in cases of patients with dementia, are placed in a puzzling state of ambiguity, since they are forgotten. However, there are times when experiential images emerge at an unsuspected time. The carnal re-volution extends to the conscious and the dim[35], or even unconscious, performances, since the vitality of human existence is not exclusively experienced in microscopic functions, or abstract raw expressions.
Human existence is a physical existence whose form is subject to material temporality. However, it is not safe, philosophically and scientifically, to define man as a person solely on the basis of chronological criteria. As Thomas Fuchs points out, life does not begin until reason and autonomy have been developed, for in this way existence, as a whole, is wronged. Especially, in fact, when it comes to weak bodies or bodies of patients, or in our case, bodies of people with dementia, it is unfair to recognize their dignity as persons, when they are already at the end of their lives. [36]
This fact was foreseen by the great philosopher and student of Husserl, Edith Stein, who emphasized that the multifaceted human existence is not limited to the concept of person. According to the philosopher the concept of “person” is not sufficient to reveal the possibilities and effects of the human being as a whole.[37]
Thus, the need for the holistic approach, the importance of which Kurt Goldstein had emphasized, becomes active.[38]Goldstein emphasized the psychosomatic dimension of mental illnesses and deviations, such as aphasic crises, pointing out that when a being is mentally ill, his entire personality is also affected physically. The same happens to a person who is faced with Alzheimer’s disease, who is affected mentally, and at the same time physically, mentally and kinesthetically, as a whole.
It therefore follows from the above, the necessity of the evolutionary dialogue between Neurosciences and Phenomenology, so that both the scientific community and the individual themselves realize the dialectical relationship between bodily materiality and bodily intersubjectivity. [39]
Neuro-phenomenology brings to the forefront of Science and Philosophy human physicality as such, not only as a biological whole, but as familiarity and inhabitation of Being, since man is not an abstract, undefined being.
Man is in his body, a body that expresses the truth of human existence, even when it has fallen into oblivion, even when it refuses to be what it is. The body of human existence is here, present for existence itself, to express truth in oblivion, time in timeless spatiality, place in utopia, the answer to the question: “Who am I?”
[1] Ponty, M.M. Φαινομενολογία της Αντίληψης, ( Phenomenologie de la perception), (μτφρ. Κική Καψαμπέλη), εκδ. Νήσος, 2016, Αθήνα ( Gallimard, 1945), μέρος 3ο , ΙΙ, σ. 703.
[2] https://www.gnomikologikon.gr/.
[3] Λιαντίνης Δ., Γκέμμα, εκδ. Δ. Λιαντίνη, Αθήνα 2006, β’, σ. 25.
[4] https://poemanalysis.com/shakespeare-quotes/we-know-what-we-are-but-know-not-what-we-may-be/.
[5] Malet Jean Pierre &Lucile Garnier, Ο Διττός Εαυτός, Πώς Λειτουργεί; (μτφρ. Brigitte Cooreman) , εκδ. Έσοπτρον, Αθήνα 2012. ( Le double… comment ça marche? Editions Le Temps présent , 2007), κεφ. 34, σ. 159.
[6] “Alzheimer’s Disease. What is Alzheimer’s Disease?”(2023), Harvard Health Publishing. Harvard Medical School, ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/alzheimers-disease-a-to-z
[7] https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki
[8] Andrew E. Budson, MD (2020), “Does air pollution cause Alzheimer’s Disease?”, Harvard Health Publishing , Harvard Medical School, ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/does-air-pollution-cause-alzheimers-disease-2020072320627
[9] Andrew E. Budson, MD (2022), “I’m too young to have Alzheimer’s disease or dementia, right?”, Harvard Health Publishing , Harvard Medical School, ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/im-too-young-to-have-alzheimers-disease-or-dementia-right-202206202764.
[10] Όπ.π Andrew E. Budson (2022).
[11] Deepak Chopra, Rudolph E Tanzi, Ο θεραπευτικός εαυτός, μαθαίνοντας να θωρακίζουμε το ανοσοποιητικό μας σύστημα για πάντα. (The Healing Self: A Revolutionary New Plan to Supercharge Your Immunity and Stay Well for Life, Harmony Books, a division of Random House, Inc., New York, 2018), (μτφρ. Σώτη Τριανταφύλλου), για την ελληνική γλώσσα, εκδ. Πατάκη, Αθήνα, 2021, μέρος 2ο, Rudi Tanzi «Το σήμερα και το αύριο της νόσου Αλτσχάιμερ», σ. 463.
[12] Thomas Fuchs, (2005), “Corporealized and Disembodied Minds: A Phenomenological View of the Body in Melancholia and Schizophrenia”, Philosophy, Psychiatry and Psychology, ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236775531_Corporealized_and_Disembodied_Minds_A_Phenomenological_View_of_the_Body_in_Melancholia_and_Schizophrenia
[13] Όπ.π. Thomas Fuchs (2005).
[14] Heidegger Martin, Είναι και Χρόνος ( Sein und Zeit, 1927), (Μεταφρ: Γιάννης Τζαβάρας), εκδ. Δωδώνη, Αθήνα, 1η εκδ. 1978, 2η, 2013, §22, σ. 175.
[15] Οπ.π, Heidegger, §23, σ. 179.
[16] Heidegger, §29, σ. 228.
[17] Όπ.π. Heidegger, σ. 190.
[18] Heidegger, §24, σ. 184.
[19] “Can we restore memories we’ve lost?”, (2021), Harvard Health Publishing. Harvard Medical School, ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/can-we-restore-memories-weve-lost
[20] Francesco Della Gatta, (2017) “Embodiment, sé corporeo e slivuppo della consapevolezza di sé”, Psicologia Fenomenologica , ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.psicologiafenomenologica.it/embodiment-se-corporeo/.
[21] Ponty, M.M. Φαινομενολογία της Αντίληψης, ( Phenomenologie de la perception), (μτφρ. Κική Καψαμπέλη), εκδ. Νήσος, 2016, Αθήνα ( Gallimard, 1945), μέρος 1ο, ΙΙΙ, σ. 189.
[22] Όπ.π. Ponty, σ σ 190-193.
[23] Ponty, σ. 193.
[24] Δεληβογιατζής Σωκράτης, Ζητήματα Διαλεκτικής, εκδ. Ερωδιός (4η έκδοση), 2010, Θεσσαλονίκη.
[25] Βλ. Ponty, μέρος 2ο, IV, σ. 603.
[26] Merleau Ponty, Merleau Ponty à la Sorbonne, résumé de cours 1949- 1952, Cynara, δημοσιεύτηκε (was published): 1/1/1988, εκδ. FeniXX réédition numérique, ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.google.com/books/.
[27] Italian Network for autosomal dominant Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration, “Television, Mirrors and Alzheimer’s Disease”, Dott. G. B. Frisoni, ανακτήθηκε από: centroalzheimer, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k96nto0LCZA
[28] Camus Albert, Ο μύθος του Σίσυφου, μτφρ. Ιάνη Λο Σκόκο, εκδ. Ρούγκας, σ σ. 64- 65, 78-83.
[29] Ponty, μέρος 3ο, Ι, σ. 627.
[30] Taylor, Richard. “Time and Life’s Meaning.” Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686.
[31] https://www.gnomikologikon.gr/.
[32] Howard E. LeWine, “Generalized Anxiety Disorded”, Harvard Health Publishing. Harvard Medical School ανακτήθηκε από: https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/generalized-anxiety-disorder-a-to-z.
[33] https://www.gnomikologikon.gr/.
[34] Ponty, M.M. Φαινομενολογία της Αντίληψης, ( Phenomenologie de la perception), (μτφρ. Κική Καψαμπέλη), εκδ. Νήσος, 2016, Αθήνα ( Gallimard, 1945).
[35] Kant Immanuel, Ανθρωπολογία από πραγματολογική άποψη, ( Anthropologie in pragmatiscer Hinsicht) , (μτφρ. ΧάρηςΤασάκος), εκδ. Παπαζήση, 2020 Αθήνα μέρος 1ο, §5, σ. 35.
[36] Knaup Marcus, Unity of Body and Soul or Mind- Brain Being. Towards a Paradigm shift in Modern Concepts of Personhood, J. B. Metzler , Stuttgart, 2018, D., 6.5., σ. 308, (Fuchs, T: Leib und Lebenswelt. Neue philosophisch – psychiatrische Essays Baden – Baden 2008, pp. 117 f), σ.308.
[37] Stein Edith, Philosophy of psychology and the Humanities, translated by: Mary Catharine Baseheart- Marianne Sawicki, ICS Publications ( Institute of Carmelite Studies), Washington D.C., 2000. “ Beiträge zur Philosophischen Begründung der Psychologie und der Geisteswissenschaften”, ©Max Niemeyer Verlag Tübingen, 1922, 1970, Editor’s Introduction. Ανακτήθηκε από: https://books.google.gr/.
[38] Goldstein Kurt, Selected Papers/ Ausgewählte Schriften, (edited by: Aron Gurwitsch, Else M. Goldstein Haudek, William E. Haudek), Martinus Nijhoff / The Hague, Netherlands 1971, ανακτήθηκε από: https://books.google.gr (με παραχώρηση δικαιώματος του Springer Science & Business Media, σ σ. 4-7.
[39] Changeux Jean- Pierre , Ricoeuer Paul , Η φύση και ο Κανόνας, (μτφρ. Λαοκρατία Λακκά), εκδ. Καστανιώτη, Αθήνα 1999, ( La nature et la regle: Ce qui nous fait penser, copyright Editions Odile Jacob, 1998) κεφ. 5, σ. 371.
